Research
Value to Employers
Personal Financial Education for Employees: Evidence on the Bottom-line Benefits, Financial Counseling and Planning, 1997, Garman
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Employers who offer personal finance education to employees convey that they are concerned with their
long-term welfare. Employers offer financial education because of poor participation by employees
in 401(k) retirement plans and fear of lawsuits from former workers claiming negligence for having a
poor pension plan. As a result, employers typically offer narrowly focused financial education about
retirement. Employers should offer comprehensive personal finance employee education because the
cost is low and the benefits are high. To strengthen the case, more research on the bottom-line benefits
of personal finance employee education should be accumulated.
Key Words: Financial education, Employee education, Savings, Investment, Retirement, 401(k),
Cafeteria plan, Credit management, Money management, Work-family
There has been a tidal wave of employers deciding to
offer personal finance education to their employees over
the past five years (Lee, 1997). Today, 56% of
employers offer employees financial education on saving
and investing for retirement (KPMG, 1997). An Ernst &
Young research study of large employers in the United
States found that 65% of companies offer long-term
retirement planning to employees, and 45% offered
retirement planning immediately preceding retirement
(Fee-based education favored, 1997). This contrasts to
17% of large employers offering education on day-to-day
finances, 14% providing information on planning for
major life events, and 12% offering education on debt
management "Nearly 80% of all companies with more
than 5,000 employees are planning to conduct some sort
of financial education program by the end of next year"
(Arnone & Pape, 1997 ).
Part of the reason for increased financial education for
workers is that, "Employers are recognizing that
employee financial education can have a positive,
tangible impact on the bottom line, says James E.
Buckley, national partner-in-charge of KPMG Peat
Marwick's Compensation & Benefits Practice."
(KPMG..., 1997). "Employees empowered with the
knowledge and tools necessary to help maximize the
retirement programs that employers are offering are likely
to become a more confident, motivated and productive
workforce" (KPMG, 1997).
This article offers several reasons why employers are
offering financial education to employees. It argues that
employers should offer comprehensive personal finance
employee education rather than narrowly focused
financial education about retirement. It concludes with a
discussion of research needs on the bottom -line benefits
of personal finance employee education.
Why Employers Offer Financial Education
There are several reasons why employers offer employees
financial education:
- Financial education is the right thing to do.
- Many workers are not participating in employer sponsored
retirement plans.
- Participation by highly compensated employees in an
employer-sponsored plan may be limited by
regulations when non-highly paid employees do not
participate.
- Employees who are not well educated about the
benefits of retirement plans choose not to participate,
- Department of Labor (DOL) regulations encourage
financial education.
- Employers fear negligence claims.
- Personal financial concerns may be carried to the
workplace with negative results for the employer.
1E. Thomas Garman, Fellow, Center for Organizational and Technological Advancement, Professor of Personal Finance Employee Education,
HIDM/CT-0410, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 2 4061-0410. Phone: 540-231-6677. Fa x: 540-231-3250. Website: http://www.chre.vt.edu/~/pfee/
E-mail: pfee@vt.edu
Appreciation is extended to key people at Virginia Tech for their valuable comments on this work: (1) students Carey E. Tennyson, Dorothy C.
Bagwell, and So-hyun Joo, and (2) faculty members Constance Y. Kratzer and Irene E. Leech. Ms. Bagwell also provided helpful research
assistance.
It Is the Right Thing to Do
Many employers, especially those with a large number of
employees, increasingly believe that they are responsible
to their workers for more than a paycheck. Now facing
labor shortages, employers are shifting away from
viewing employees as an easily replaceable unit of labor
and toward seeing employees as valuable people who could benefit by employer policies that are pr o-family
and pro-worker.
Employers now are making serious
efforts to keep their best employees on the job. The
definition of a good employer has changed (Purcell,
1997).
Employers have moved from o ld-fashioned paternalism
to trying today to be an employee's employer of choice
(Hackett, 1997). Some employers have for many years
taken a paternalistic view toward their workforce.
Samsonite Luggage, for example , banned smoking in
work sites in the 1960s, partially because of the assumed
negative effects on health. Other employers, such as R.
J. Reynolds, provided pastoral counseling at the work site
believing, in part, that workers who are experiencing
serious personal stresses in their lives sometimes have
those problems spill over into the workplace.
Companies with pro-family and pro-worker perspectives
- typically about time off for family needs,
telecommuting, wellness programs, on-site child care, and
casual dress-are trying to strengthen the relationship
between employer and employee. Such companies are
"vigilant and proactive" in trying to "evaluate and
improve the circumstances which affect" their employees
(Wallace & Karlak, in press). Such employers appreciate
happier employee s in the workplace. Working Mother
magazine says that these kind s of employers are "role
models for American business, creating workplaces that
offer employees both the opportunity to advance in their
careers and to have a good family life" (Moskowitz &
Townsend, 1997).
Workers Need Encouragement To Participate In Plans
Many workers are not saving for retirement and are going
to have extreme difficulty finding the money for
retirement (Swoboda, 1997). Only one-third of workers
have tried to calculate how much they will need to save
by retirement, and only one-third of these were very
confident ab out their estimate (The reality...,1997).
Todd and DeVaney (1997) reported that only 24% of
households listed retirement as an important reason for
saving. A Kemper-Roper Retirement Monitor nationwide
poll found that 65% of Boomers said they were not saving enough for retirement (Jones, 1995). According
to a study by Access Research, average participation rates
for 401(k) plans are about 78%, compared to 30 to 35%
for 403(b) plans (Harrison, 1997). "While three out of
four workers in firms with over 1,000 employees
participate in a pension plan, only one in four workers in
firms with fewer than 100 employees participate in a
pension plan" (Berg, 1997 ). Fully half the people who do
retire do so with no pension plan (Berg, 1997).
The Public Agenda/Fidelity study titled Miles to Go: A
Status Report on Americans' Plans for Retirement found
that, "three in 10 of the Americans closest to retirement
say they have personally saved less than $10,000 for the
years they are no longer working" (30% of America ns...,
1997). A Consumer Federation of America -
NationsBank study on financial planning found that
Americans are goals such as retirement (Bailey, 1997).
The Workforce 2020 report of the Hudson Institute
concludes that increasing numbers of workers will be
"forced to stay on the job because they cannot afford to
retire" (Swoboda, 199 7). The Kemper-Roper Retirement
Monitor found that nearly 60% of Americans said they
they would have to work, at lea st part-time, during
retirement to make ends meet (Jones, 1995). Smart
employers are well aware of these trends and are offering
retirement education pro grams for their employees.
Participation by Highly Compensated May Be Limited
Discrimination tests are required to ensure that defined contribution
pension plans do not unfairly benefit only
the highest paid employees . The regulation requirements
state that when too few of the non-highly paid employees
participate in the pension plan, the highly compensated
are not allowed to contribute the maximum amount
otherwise permitted under law, which is $9,500 a year.
If, for example, a highly compensated employee could
only invest $8,500 a year for retirement, instead of
$9,500, "by the time they retire, that could be a nest egg
of literally tens of thousands of dollars less than they
might have been able to save for retirement," says Martha
Priddy Patterson, director of employee-benefits policy at
KPMG Peat Marwick (Schultz, 1997).
A KPMG study of 1,251 companies "with at least 200
employees shows an enormous difference between
participation rates among the highly compensated and
non-highly paid work ers: 90% of highly paid employees
contribute to their 401(k) plan, compared with only 64%
of all other workers with such plans" (Schultz, 1997).
Further, "highly paid workers contribute, on average,
6.79% of income, while the non-highly paid contribute
only 4.73% " (Schultz, 1 997). In non-profits, the "gap is
25 percentage points between the 77% participation rate
by the highly paid and 52% participation by all other
employees" (KPMG, 1997).
Employees Educated About Plan Benefits Participate
The Kemper-Roper Retirement Monitor found that "about
one-third of both Xers and Boomers and one-fifth of pre retired
[workers] feel 'uncertain' or 'at a total loss' when it
comes to planning for their own retirement" (Jones,
1995). William E. Chapman, executive vice president of
Kemper Financial Services, says that despite an
abundance of information on retirement, "Americans are
still clamoring for help" (Jones, 1995).
Employers who have shifted the financial decision
making responsibility of retirement planning to
employees "are now realizing that most employees,
including some of their highly educated employees, have
little or no financial education" (Patterson, 1997). In one
firm "the average 401(k) plan permits employees to
contribute 14% of their compensation, [but] employees
actually contribute only about 5% of their compensation"
(KPMG, 1997).
KPMG Peat Marwick is the U.S. member firm of KPMG
International, a worldwide professional services firm.
Although KPMG conducts employee financial education
seminars, it has an external firm , Merrill Lynch, conduct
such education for its own employees. The Merrill Lynch
financial education seminars for KPMG resulted in "a
12.14 percentage point (no t percentage) increase in
participation among lower-paid employees (non -highly
compensated employees as defined by IRC section
414(q))" compared to a participation increase of 6.6
percentage points among highly compensated employees
(Patterson, 1997).
Based upon internal survey data, KPMG has found that
while providing a match (partially or fully putting funds
into the employees' retirement account) has a "weak link
to participation" offering financial education has a
"strong link to participation" (Patters on, 199 7). In fact,
providing financial education is "cheaper than matching
contributions, and, in some cases it seems to be more
effective at increasing both participation and the amount
contributed" (Patterson , 1997). Thus, providing financial
education for employees about the benefits of retirement
plans is an inexpensive way of increasing both
participation and contributions.
Bayer and Bernheim's recent study, The Effects of Financial Education in the Workplace: Evidence From
A Survey Of Employers , found that "participation in and
contributions to voluntary savings plans are significantly
higher when employers offer retirement seminars" (Lee,
1997). The Bayer and Bernheim study also found that
financial education has a stronger effect on the non-highly
paid employees than on the highly compensated (Lee,
1997). Moreover, the national study by Bernheim and
Garrett found that, "employer-based retirement education
strongly influences household financial behavior"
(Bernheim & Garrett, 1996) . They concluded that,
"significant numbers of employees rely heavily on
employer-based financial education when it is made
available to them" (Bernheim & Garrett, 1996).
DOL Regulations Encourage Financial Education
As recently as 1990, employers were hesitant to offer
employees anything beyond minimal information about
their retirement plans and investment options within such
plans. This reticence was based upon the lack of legal
protection from employee lawsuits claiming that the
employer gave them faulty advice, unsatisfactory
investment choices, and/or injurious financial education.
While employers are "legally constrained from offering
investment advice [italics added]," the law covering
retirement plans "requires firms to give workers
educational material on the basics of investing" (Egan,
1997). In addition, the 1996 Department of Labor Final
Interpretative Bulletin regulations have "created a safe
harbor for virtually all the commonly used forms of
participant education" (Berg, 1997). The TCW Group, a
funds-management company, "has asked the U.S.
Department of Labor for permission to provide
investment advice to 401(k) plan participants and allow
them to invest" in its own group of mutual funds (Egan,
1997). TIAA-CREF also is planning to offer investment
advice (d'Ambrosio, 1997).
Reduce Chance of Negligence Lawsuits
Even with broadened protections from the government,
many employers remain concerned about investment
education. "Public policy is moving toward making
employers more accountable for their employees'
retirement funding deficiencies" (Harrison, 1997). Some
law firms currently specialize in "workplace stress claims
resulting from negligence, rather than deliberate
victimization," and in the U .S. "nine out of 10 are
successful" (Midgley, 1997). Leading-edge employers,
if they are not doing so already, need to take proactive
steps to avoid lawsuits, including class-action lawsuits,
from present and former employees claiming that the employer was negligent for having a poor pension plan,
for not teaching them how to invest, and for not offering
a comprehensive personal finance employee education
program. In his book, The Excuse Factory, Walter Olson
portrays today's workplace as "paralyzed by laws aimed
at protecting workers" (Saltzman, 1997).
Dee Lee, president of Harvard Financial Educators, says
that, "an employee's satisfaction with [his/her] retirement
nest egg is going to determine the amount of litigation the
industry will face in the future. Education is the key to
that employee's satisfaction" (Le e, 1997 ). Unisys
Corporation will be defending itself from such litigation
in a retrial this fall (Lee, 1997).
Employees Carry Problems to Workplace
KPMG's Martha Priddy Patterson says that " a financially
uninformed employee cannot manage personal finance
efficiently and they certainly cannot understand how their
work duties affect the employer's finances and profits and
losses in the big picture" (Patterson, 1997). The Ford
Foundation study titled Relinking Work and Life
concludes that "paying attention to employees' personal
lives increases corporate productivity" (Kleiman, 1997).
A Colorado bank president recently said that, "People
who plan and manage their finances well tend to have less
stresses which can hinder job performance" (The HR
Battlefield, 1997). A key question is, "How much
productivity?"
A research study by the Military Family Institute (MFI)
concludes that the indirect costs of poor personal
financial behaviors of U.S. Navy service members is
conservatively estimated to be "$172 million annually in
overall productivity costs" (Luther, 1997; Luther, et al.,
1997). "In addition, direct costs alone are conservatively
estimated at $36 million, or 891 man years" (Luther,
1997; Luther, et al., 1997). Therefore, the total annual
costs (both indirect and direct) to the U.S. Navy for the
poor financial behaviors of service members is calculated
to be between $208 million ($172M + $36M) and $294
million ($258M + $ 36M). With 430,000 personnel, the
cost is between $483 ($208M/430,000) and $683
($294M/430,000) per year per service member.
Other research shows that "approximately 15% of
workers in the United States are currently experiencing
stress from poor financial behaviors to the extent that it
negatively impacts their productivity" (Garman, Leech &
Grable, 1996; Garman & Leech, 1996). The nation's
elder statesman on financial counseling for employees, R.
J. Reynolds Company's recently retired pastoral counselor
Rodney Brown, reported this year that, "No company is
immune to the effects of financial entanglements, no
matter how good the pay and benefits" (Brown, 1997).
Brown (1993) deduced that "employees with financial
problems cost their employer no less than 10% of their
salaries per year in lost productivity ... The waste factor
could be 15-20 percent!" One manufacturing employer
recently said that, "40 to 50% of my employees are overstressed
about their debts, such that it reduces their
productivity, and that is a very conservative estimate"
(Garman, 1997).
Employees take time away from productive labor to
confer on the telephone with creditors, seek sources of
additional credit, converse with co-workers about
stresses, talk with supervisors about financial problems,
and place gambling wagers. Employees sometimes call
in sick to their employers so they can make court
appearances, talk with attorneys, and meet with others
(e.g., creditors, collection agencies, co-workers, relatives)
concerning their personal financial problems. Some take
occasional extended work breaks, supposedly to use
restroom facilities or to eat a meal, but instead spend the
time dealing with financial matters.
The negative costs incurred by employers include lower
job productivity, absenteeism,b tardiness, loss of
customers who seek better service, loss of revenue from
sales not made, accidents and increased risk taking, health
care costs for stress-related illnesses, disability and
worker compensation claims, thefts from employers, time
lost from the job dealing with personal finance matters,
and employee turnover. Rachel Hubska, president of
Rachel's Bus Company, says that "she has learned there
is a strong link between people being in control of their
financial lives and making it to work on time" (Grimsley,
1997a).
An employee who misses 4 days of work in one month
personally experiences a 20% loss in productivity (4 days
missed divided by 20 working days). This does not
include any related costs for temporary labor, worker's
compensation, employee health care, and increased
insurance premiums. Nor does it include the opportunity
cost of the disrupted productivity of other workers
inconvenienced by the financially troubled employee.
If the decline in worker productivity is 20%, the cost to
an employer of 1,000 people is estimated at $900,000
annually. This is calculated as follows: $30,000 (annual
employee wage) X 150 (current number of financial
troubled employees) X .20 (lost productivity). This amounts to $6,000 per financially troubled employee, and
it is based upon the assumption that workers experience
personal financial problems to the extent that their
productivity is reduced 20%, a fair estimate.
Why Employers Should Offer
Comprehensive Personal Financial Education
Personal finance employee education is information,
education, and services provided by an employer to help
its employees make informed decisions about (1)
employer-sponsored retirement plans, (2) cafeteria plan
employee benefits, (3) credit and money management,
and (4) consumer rights. This definition comes from the
Personal Finance Employee Education (PFEE) project, an
outreach effort sponsored by the Commonwealth of
Virginia and Virginia Tech, a major research university.c
Information, education and services on financial wellness
that can be offered to employees are (1) preventive
information and education for those facing money
challenges, (2) remedial assistance for those experiencing
a financial crisis, and (3) productive information for those
considering financial opportunities.
Reason: It is Less Expensive to Educate Workers on the
Value of their Employment Benefits than it is to Give
them Higher Salaries
Martha Priddy Patterson says that employers can compete
for quality workers by enriching benefits in "two
ways-directly by offering richer benefits (difficult to do
in economically lean times) or indirectly, by educating
employees on the value of what is being offered, and by
helping employees enrich those benefits even more
through their own savings and investment decisions"
(Patterson, 1997). She further says that, "if employees do
not have the financial skills to maximize the benefits
being provided to them, they will: push for more benefits,
be less financially secure, and be more likely to be
dissatisfied with their compensation" (Patterson, 1997).
Employees should learn how to make well- informed
decisions about all types of employer-provided benefits,
such as dependent care, dental, mental health, and
wellness, as well as retirement. They also can learn how
to use these benefits in ways that are cost-effective for
their employers, too.
Employers Need to Attract and Retain the Best Workers
Leading-edge employers increasingly must compete to
attract as well as retain the very best employees by
offering top quality, comprehensive personal finance
employee education programs. "Companies are beating
the bushes for knowledgeable, good employees, and ...,"
in part, that is what is fueling financial wellness and
similar family-friendly benefits (Grimsley, 1997b). In
addition, both employers and employees have a common
interest to increase participation in and contributions to
employee-sponsored retirement plans. When employees
are satisfied with their compensation, including benefits,
they are more likely to stay with their employers.
Participation in Retirement Plans Rises
It can be argued that perhaps one-half of those who do
not participate in a pension plan fail to do so because they
are uninformed about the existence of the need, and they
lack the motivation to make it happen. "Education
significantly stimulates participation in and contributions
to 401(k) plans" (Bernheim & Garrett, 1996). The
Bernheim & Garrent (1996) report concludes that
employer-provided financial education increases the both
the rates of saving and for the purposes of retirement-In
other words, education works. Also , it can be argued that
the other pension non-participants cannot save
appropriately because they have credit and money
management problems.
Inexpensive Family-Friendly Benefits
The movement toward employers offering comprehensive
personal finance education to employees exists because
it makes smart business sense. The additional
components in personal finance employee education
( beyond the retirement plan education
component)- cafeteria plan, credit/money management,
and consumer rights-are an inexpensive family-friendly
benefit to offer employees. Oftentimes, it is these areas
which will help "uncover" the money needed for an
employee to participate in a retirement plan.
Offering comprehensive personal finance employee
education can be a very low-cost employee benefit. It is
inexpensive for a Litton Poly-Scientific Company to offer
workshops to employees on how to choose among
cafeteria plan benefits. It is not costly for a Great
Western Life Insurance Company to put a notice into
each pay envelope a notice that says, "If you know
anyone with debt and money problems, tell them to call
1-800-388-2227 for non-profit credit counseling." (This
is the correct number for any local member of the
National Foundation for Consumer Credit.) It is not
extravagantly expensive for a Mrs. Giles Country Kitchen
to place display racks of consumer information brochures
next to soft drink machines for employees.
More Confident, Motivated, and Productive Workforce
Comprehensive PFEE also helps improve employees' financial wellness, thus creating, in the words of KPMG's
James E. Buckley, "a more confident, motivated and
productive workforce" (KPMG, 1997). Employers across
America are sharing "what works," as demonstrated
throughout 1997 by numerous financial education
seminars in New York, Chicago, and Atlanta, sponsored
by The Conference Board; at a seminar in New York,
hosted by TIAA-CREF and ASEC (American Savings
Education Council); and at a conference in San Diego,
sponsored by the Association for Financial Counseling
and Planning Education.
Employees Will Have More Discretionary Income
Employees who learn how to make informed decisions
about the cafeteria plan employee benefits save money
when they make satisfactory choices on health benefits,
life insurance, long-term disability and dependent care.
Employees who learn how to make personal assessments
about how much credit to use, how to manage personal
and family finances, and, if necessary, how to get out of
financial difficulty have a greater capacity to save for
retirement. Employees who learn how to use consumer
protection laws know how to avoid consumer rip offs and
frauds, and if they have experienced an economic loss in
the marketplace, they learn how to reduce o r eliminate its
impact. The result is that consumers have more money
available to sp end, save, an d invest.
Without PFEE Many Employees Will Fail to Reach
Retirement in Good Shape Financially
Employers who offer minimal financial education
programs about their pension plans will see little change
in worker participation in, and contributions to employee sponsored
retirement plans. With little or no genuine
employee education on investing for retirement, many
workers will continue to fa il to set realistic retirement
goals, fail to take action to increase savings, and fail to
select appropriate investments to achieve retirement
goals. Without a comprehensive personal finance
employee education program, many workers will rem ain
mired in personal debt, and face consumer problems
unsuccessfully.
Employers Should Have Two Goals
A number one goal of employers should be to provide
comprehensive personal finance education that will
change employee behaviors and motivate 100% of them
to participate in retirement plans. A participation rate at,
or near 100% is attainable, as evidenced by Duke Power
Company and other employers (Kazel, 1997 ). This is
very much to the advantage of employees because it is
obvious that "the earlier participants become involved in
retirement-income planning, the more they will benefit in
retirement" (Educating pension..., 1995).
A second goal of employers should be to seek out
employees experiencing stress from personal financial
management difficulties and provide them with
assistance. These employees, and possibly members of
their families, need information, education and perhaps
counseling to help them make better financial decisions.
The time has never been better for employers to offer
comprehensive personal finance employee education
programs. Many employers have heard the wake-up call.
Employers who offer personal finance employee
education convey to their employees that they are
concerned with their long-term welfare. Such employers
are saying to employees, "I care about you and your
family" (Grimsley, 1997a).
Employers who want to take proactive measures can
guide employees toward organizations and agencies that
can provide them with financial help, such as credit
unions, non-profit credit and budget counseling services,
and reputable providers of information, education, and
services, such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture's
Cooperative Extension Service, The PFE Group, Asset
Management Group, ED SA, and American Express
Financial Advisors Services. Key national leaders are
asking that financial education be mandatory for all
employees (Salisbury, 1997).
More Research Needed on the Bottom-line Benefits
Some employers still need to be convinced that offering
comprehensive personal finance education to their
employees makes good business sense. To successfully
make that argument, evidence on the bottom -line benefits
of personal finance employee education needs to be
accumulated in one or more of six areas: (1) increasing
employee motivation, self-confidence and job
productivity, (2) decreasing absenteeism due to matters
associated with personal finances, (3) decreasing health
care costs, particularly for stress-related illnesses, (4)
saving work time from not attending to personal finances
during the workday, (5) securing employee loyalty and
retention, and (6) avoiding lawsuits from employees
claiming employer negligence.d
Employers and researchers can work together to place
values on these factors. The best way to obtain the
information is to bring the key people
together-employers, along with providers of
information, education, and services-so that they can agree on methodology, data analysis, and solutions.
After offering work site educational programs, such as
seminars, workshops, and classroom instruction, as well
as face-to-face interactions, it is vital to measure the
results, and share the findings with employers.
Calculating the numbers should reveal that the personal
financial wellness of employees is something that can be
turned from a cost in to a positive contributor for
employees, employers and shareholders.
Proponents of comprehensive personal finance employee
education must be able to make a dollar-based economic
impact statement such as, "A PFEE program valued at X
dollars will save the company Y dollars per year and
yield Z additional benefits." The return-on-investment
calculation will do little good, however, unless the
information is publicized. Findings from such research
can add to the literature base that will conclusively
demonstrate that personal financial wellness increases
employee productivity.
"Once employers come to believe that what helps people
in life will help them in work , they will be more likely to
set up and ad minister successful and equitable benefits
program s," such as personal finance education for
employees (Starcke, 1997). Then more employers will
come to understand that "an effective financial education
program can successfully fulfill regulatory requirements,
increase employee productivity, establish and promote a
competitive strategic advantage for the sponsoring
company, and promote self reliance among the
participating employees" (Wallace & Karlak, in press) .
Endnotes
a. The problem of excessive household debt is serious, even though
the nation is experiencing the best economic times in 40 years.
"Two-thirds of Americans say they have trouble paying their bills
and worry about money" (Coping with money woes, 1996). A
national survey reveals that 3 out of 4 Americans faced at least one
significant financial problem recently, such as being unable to
save for future needs, delaying medical care, or having problems
with a collection agency. Personal bankruptcies last year rose to
"1,242,700 filings, up 35%" over the previous year (Criticism...,
1997). VISA U.S.A. estimates that consumers filing for bankruptcy
will reach 1.44 million in 1997-an additional 12% increase
(McDonnell, 1997).
b. According to a 1996 Unscheduled Absence Survey by CCH, Inc.,
"absenteeism costs $603 per employee...and more absences are
now attributed to family responsibilities" (cited in "Work-life
programs reap business benefits," by Martinez, M., in the June
1997 issue of HR Magazine, page 10 [from web site]).
c. PFEE is a COTA outreach project designed to exhibit model
information and education programs for employees, conduct
research, and host meetings to share knowledge about the best
practices at the Hotel Roanoke and Conference Center. A "PFEEBest Practices and Collaborations" conference was held in
November, 1997 and one is scheduled May 14-15, 1998 (see the
PFEE web site at http://www.chre.vt.edu/~/pfee/ ).
d. Jill Landauer in the July 1997 issue of HRFOCUS (pp. 3-4)
describes the first five broad areas, using similar but different
terminology, as useful to demonstrating the benefits of work/life
programs for employees.
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